Hierarchical Design of Fibrous Tissue-Mimetic Scaffolds

Most tissues of the human body present hierarchical fibrillar extracellular matrices that have a strong influence over their physicochemical properties and biological behavior. Of great interest is the introduction of this fibrillar structure to hydrogels, particularly due to the water-rich composition, cytocompatibility and tunable properties of this class of biomaterials. Here, the main bottom-up fabrication strategies for the design and production of hierarchical biomimetic fibrillar hydrogels and their most representative applications in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine are reviewed. For example, the controlled assembly/arrangement of peptides, polymeric micelles, cellulose nanoparticles (NPs), and magnetically responsive nanostructures, among others, into fibrillar hydrogels is discussed, as well as their potential use as fibrillar-like hydrogels (e.g., those from cellulose NPs) with key biofunctionalities such as electrical conductivity or remote stimulation. Finally, major remaining barriers to the clinical translation of fibrillar hydrogels and potential future directions of research in this field are discussed.